Holden

Holden, officially GM Holden Ltd, is an Australian automaker based in Port Melbourne, Victoria, originally independent but now a subsidiary of General Motors (GM). The Holden automotive marque is one of GM's "alpha" brands. Holden has taken charge of vehicle operations for General Motors in Australasia and holds partial ownership of GM Daewoo in South Korea on behalf of GM.

Over the years, Holden has offered a broad range of locally produced vehicles, with supplementary models imported from various parts of the General Motors empire. In the past, Holden has offered rebadged Nissan and Toyota models in sharing arrangements.

Holden cars are manufactured at Elizabeth, South Australia, while engines are produced at Port Melbourne, Victoria. Historically, production or assembly plants were operated in all mainland states of Australia: Woodville, South Australia (body production only), Pagewood, New South Wales, Dandenong, Victoria, Acacia Ridge, Queensland and Mosman Park, Western Australia. Consolidation of all car production at Elizabeth, South Australia, was completed in 1988, although some assembly operations continued at Dandenong until the mid-1990s. The Holden New Zealand subsidiary opened an assembly plant based in Petone, New Zealand, in 1926, but manufacturing operations ceased after an announcement was made on April 26, 1990 indicating local production would be phased out and vehicles would be imported duty free.

In 1852 James Alexander Holden emigrated to South Australia from England and established J.A. Holden & Co in 1856, a saddlery business in Adelaide. Edward Holden, James' son, entered the firm in 1905 with a genuine interest in automobiles. From there, the firm evolved through various partnerships and in 1908, as Holden and Frost, moved into the business of minor repairs to car upholstery. The company began producing complete motorcycle sidecar bodies in 1913, and Edward experimented with fitting bodies to different types of carriages. After 1917, wartime trade restrictions led the company to commence full-scale production of vehicle body shells.

J.A. Holden incorporated a new company in 1919, Holden's Motor Body Builders Ltd (HMBB). HMBB made bodies to suit a number of chassis imported from manufacturers such as Buick and Dodge. In 1931 General Motors purchased the business and formed General Motors–Holden's Ltd. Since then two name changes have occurred, the first in 1998 when the company became Holden Ltd and the second in May 2005 when it became GM Holden Ltd.

After the end of World War II, the Australian Government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry. While it is widely accepted that General Motors was the only automobile manufacturer to accept the challenge to build "Australia's Own Car," both Ford and General Motors provided studies to the Australian Government of the day. Ford's long and complex document listed the impact and employment effects of a Ford-based vehicle and associated infrastructure, whereas GM's was a three-page list of the members of parliament and what each member would receive in "financial aid."

Holden's managing director Laurence Hartnett was particularly enthusiastic about developing and building an Australian car. The 48-215 (also unofficially called the FX), was developed and launched in 1948. The mid-size 48-215 was fitted with a 132.5 cubic inch (2,171 cc) engine, and its design was based on a previously rejected post-war Chevrolet proposal. General Motors had rejected the design because the engine was deemed too small for the United States market.

During the 1950s, Holden dominated the Australian marketplace, offering buyers a combination of style, comfort, performance, economy, and value that no competitor could match. Less expensive four-cylinder cars did not offer Holden's ability to deal with rugged rural areas. Another factor in Holden's success was the large investment in production capacity, which allowed Holden to meet increased post-war demand for motor cars. 48-215 sedans were produced in parallel with the 50-2106 coupe utility from 1951, which was known colloquially as the "Ute" and became ubiquitous in Australian rural areas as the workhorse of choice. Production continued with minor changes until 1953, when the Ute was replaced by the face-lifted FJ model.

The FJ was the first major change to the Holden since its 1948 introduction. Over time it gained iconic status and remains one of Australia's most recognisable automotive symbols. A new horizontally slatted radiator grille dominated the front-end of the FJ, which had other trim changes but no changes to the body panels. Holden paid homage to the FJ with the Efijy concept car at the 2005 Australian International Motor Show in Sydney.

While the FJ was little changed from the 48-215, marketing campaigns and price cuts kept vehicle sales steady until a completely redesigned model, the FE, was launched in 1956, and offered as a station wagon as well as a sedan. Mechanical components carried over from the FJ, but the appearance was very different. Strong sales continued in Australia, and Holden achieved a market share of more than 50 percent.

The 1960s brought further change to Holden. The company faced serious competition for the first time when its major competitors began to import cars from overseas. The decade opened with Holden offering its third major new model, the FB. Styling was inspired by 1957 Chevrolets, with tailfins and a wrap-around windshield with "dog leg" A-pillars. By the time Holden introduced the FB in 1960, many considered the appearance dated. Much of the motoring industry at the time noted that the adopted styling did not translate well to the more compact Holden. The FB became the first Holden adapted for left-hand drive markets, enhancing its export potential.

In 1960, Ford unveiled the new Falcon in Australia, only months after its introduction in the United States, and soon after Holden introduced the FB. The Falcon's headlights were incorporated into the radiator grille, and automatic transmission was an option, but to Holden's advantage, the Falcon suffered from serious durability weaknesses, particularly in the front suspension. Early tests indicated that the Falcon was not well suited for Australian conditions, and Falcon customers later agreed. In response to the Falcon, Holden introduced the face-lifted EK in 1961, featuring two-tone paintwork, chrome trim, and the option of automatic transmission. The EH, premiering in 1963, featured the new Red motor, which improved vehicle performance over the previous Grey motor.

In February 1965 Holden introduced the HD, which was quickly replaced by the face-lifted HR in April 1966 because the car's styling proved unpopular. The HR had new front and rear styling and higher capacity engines, and Holden sold in excess of 250,000 units over the two-year production run. In 1968, Holden introduced its next major new model, the HK. This included Holden's first V8 engine, a Chevrolet engine imported from the United States. A long-wheelbase prestige model, the Brougham, was based on the HK, and the first full-size two-door Holden, the Monaro, was also based on the HK sedan. The name "Monaro" is an Aboriginal word meaning "higher ground" or "higher plain." The main-stream Holden Special was re-branded the Kingswood, and a basic fleet model was introduced, known as the Belmont.

A face-lifted HK, known as the HT, was introduced in 1969. The exterior changes included a new radiator grille, new rear doors on sedans (with larger windows), and new rear styling with a larger rear window, boot lid, and tail lights. Holden also introduced the first Australian designed and mass produced V8 engine, available in two capacities: 253 cubic inch (4.2 L) and 308 cubic inch (5.0 L). The following year, Holden offered the HG: a lightly face-lifted car with a revised radiator grille, tail lights, interior trim, and colours. The HG's big selling point was its Tri-Matic three-speed automatic transmission, which Holden produced at its Woodville, South Australia, factory.

Despite the arrival of serious competitors in the 1960s, namely the Ford Falcon, Chrysler Valiant, and the introduction of Japanese cars, Holden's locally-produced large six- and eight-cylinder cars remained Australia's top-selling vehicles. Exports boosted sales of the Kingswood sedan, station wagon, and utility body styles to places such as Indonesia, Trinidad and Tobago, and South Africa, where the vehicles were badged as the Chevrolet Kommando.

The 1970s opened with the launch of the new HQ series, often considered the most important new model since the original Holden 48-215. When the HQ was introduced, Holden was producing all of its passenger cars in Australia, and every model was of Australian design. However, by the end of the decade, Holden was producing cars based on overseas designs. The HQ was thoroughly re-engineered, featuring a perimeter frame and semi-monocoque (unibody) construction. This provided a level of refinement not seen in this class of vehicle before. Other firsts included a wide, 60 inch (1,500 mm) track, all-coil suspension, an extended wheelbase for station wagons, utilities and panel vans, and a new prestige brand, the Statesman, which also had a longer wheelbase. The HQ framework led to a new generation of two-door Monaros, and despite the introduction of the similar sized competitors, the HQ became the number one selling Holden of all time, with 485,650 sales in three years.

In 1975, Holden introduced the Gemini, the Australian version of the "T-Car", based on the Opel Kadett C. Not only was Gemini an overseas design, but it was developed jointly with Isuzu, GM's Japanese affiliate. A badge on the rear of the car identified it as a "Holden-Isuzu." The new car was powered by an Isuzu 1.6 litre four-cylinder engine, and its styling resembled that of the Kadett. Fast becoming a popular car, the Gemini rapidly attained sales leadership in its class, and the nameplate lived on until 1987.

Holden's most popular car to date, the Commodore, was first seen in 1978 with the introduction of the VB. Holden's new family car was loosely based on the Opel Rekord E body shell but with the front grafted on from the Opel Senator to accommodate the larger Holden six-cylinder and V8 engines. Initially, Commodore maintained Holden's sales leadership in Australia. However, some of the compromises resulting from the adoption of a design intended for another market hampered Commodore's acceptance. In particular, Commodore was narrower than its predecessor and the Falcon rival, which made it less comfortable for three rear-seat passengers. The Commodore was perceived as being smaller than the Falcon, which came at the expense of sales. The width problem was not resolved until the introduction of the wider VN in 1988, which became the first full-size Commodore.

The 1980s were challenging for Holden and the Australian car industry. The Australian Government tried to revive the industry with the Button car plan. The plan encouraged car makers to focus on producing larger and more economic volumes of fewer models, and it provided incentives for exports.
Holden faced financial challenges as sales of the Commodore and Gemini declined. Competition from Ford intensified when the Laser, a compact car based on the Mazda 323, and an updated Falcon proved popular. Other Australian manufacturers, Toyota, Nissan, and Mitsubishi Motors were also gaining market share. When Holden released the Camira in 1982, a short run of good sales was followed by faltering numbers; buyers considered the 1.6 litre engine to have inadequate power, and the car's reputation was tarnished by below average build and ride quality.

In 1985, Holden's parent, General Motors, reorganised and recapitalised the business. At this time, the engine manufacturing and car manufacturing divisions were separated. The engine manufacturing business was successful, building four-cylinder GM Family II engines for use in cars built overseas. Holden became the source of engines for the Vauxhall Cavalier and the Opel Ascona built in Europe. In the same year, the Barina supermini was launched, becoming Holden's first truly small car. The rebadged Suzuki Swift allowed Holden to broaden its market appeal.

Holden began to sell rebadged Nissan Pulsar hatchbacks as the Holden Astra in 1985, as a result of a deal with Nissan. When Nissan released a new model Pulsar (with an Astra clone) in 1987, it was powered by the GM Family II engine that powered the Camira. This arrangement ceased in 1988, when Holden entered a new alliance with Toyota. The joint venture formed a new company: United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI). In 1989, Holden began selling rebadged versions of Toyota's Corolla and Camry, as the Holden Nova and Apollo, while Toyota sold the Commodore as the Toyota Lexcen. Toyota's adaption of the Commodore was named after Ben Lexcen, the designer of Australia II yacht, which won the 1983 America's Cup, wresting the trophy from the United States for the first time in the competition's history. This badge engineering scheme did not resonate well with buyers, even though rival Ford had been successful with its Laser and Telstar models, which were face-lifeted versions of Mazda’s 323 and 626, respectively.

In 1984, Holden introduced the VK Commodore, with significant styling changes from the previous VH. The next update for the Commodore appeared in 1986 with the VL, which had new front and rear styling. Controversially, the VL was powered by the Nissan RB30 3.0 litre six-cylinder engine and had an electronically controlled four-speed automatic transmission. The change to the Nissan engine was necessitated by the legal requirement that all new cars sold in Australia after 1986 had to run on unleaded petrol. It was not feasible to convert the six-cylinder engine to run on unleaded fuel, and the Nissan engine was chosen as representing the best engine available. However, because of the changing exchange rates over the life of the VL, the cost of the Nissan engines doubled. The final phase of the Commodore's recovery strategy involved the 1988 VN. The VN was significantly wider than before, and it was powered by the American-designed 3.8 litre Buick V6 engine.

This decade saw Holden's transformation continue. By the end of the decade, Holden was a confident and successful participant in the Australian car industry, as well as having a place on the world automotive stage. Besides manufacturing Australia's bestselling car, which was exported in significant numbers, many of the Holden's locally produced engines continued to be sent abroad to power cars made outside Australia. In this decade, Holden adopted a strategy of importing cars it needed to offer a full range of competitive vehicles.

In 1990 Holden revitalised the wide-body Commodore, which was significantly more successful than its predecessor. The defunct Statesman brand was reintroduced, but the models were sold as the Holden Statesman and Caprice. As well as the prestige variants, the Ute made a return. The Buick sourced 3.8 litre V6 engine, produced locally, provided power for the Commodore range, and the 5.0 litre V8 engine was replaced in 1999.

The UAAI badge-engineered cars fared poorly, although the Holden Commodore, Toyota Camry, and Corolla were all successful when sold under their original nameplates. Potential customers could see the "copies" were thinly disguised versions of popular cars, and purchased the vehicles from the original manufacturer. In 1996, UAAI was dissolved, and Holden returned to products from within GM rather than from competitors. The Toyota-sourced Nova and Apollo were replaced with the Holden Astra and Vectra, both of which designed by Opel in Germany. Assembly of Vectra began at Elizabeth, South Australia in 1998, and these cars were exported to Japan and Southeast Asia with Opel badges. However, the Vectra did not achieve sufficient sales in Australia to justify local assembly and reverted to being fully imported in 1999. In 1994, the Opel Corsa replaced the already available Suzuki Swift as the source for the Holden Barina.

In August 1997 the all-new VT Commodore was introduced; it was the outcome of an AU$600 million development programme that spanned more than half a decade. The new model sported a rounded exterior body shell, improved dynamics, and many 'firsts' for an Australian-built car. A stronger body structure contributed to gains in crash safety, and in late 1997, just months after its introduction, it was crowned Wheels Car of the Year. A revived Monaro, based on the VT Commodore, attracted wide attention after being shown as a concept car at Australian motor shows, and it drew a large waiting list after it was put into production. The revived Monaro was released to the Australian market in October 2001 and ceased production in 2005.

Holden's trend of importing many of their models from Opel in Germany continued throughout the first half of the 2000s, but Holden looked to the GM-owned Daewoo in South Korea for replacements to increase profitability. Holden had already established close research and design links with Daewoo, with whom it exported the large Statesman model. In 2005, the Opel-sourced Holden Barina was replaced by the Daewoo Kalos, which continued to be sold under the Barina nameplate. The entry-level Holden Astra Classic was replaced by the Holden Viva, based on the Daewoo Lacetti. The European-sourced Astra nameplate continued but was sold as a more up-market model. In 2006 Holden begun selling the Holden Captiva, a Crossover SUV manufactured by Daewoo with Australian-built versions of the Alloytec V6 engine. The third Holden model to be replaced with a South Korean alternative was the Vectra, surpassed by the mid-size Epica in April 2007.

The 1997 VT Commodore received its first major update in 2002 with the VY, and in 2006 Holden launched the new VE. The VE was the first Commodore model with all-Australian origins, as opposed to previous generations' Opel-sourced platforms adapted both mechanically and in size for the local market.